Overview and aims:
Adolescence is a period of vulnerability to mental ill-health. With social media use ubiquitous in early adolescence, more evidence is required as to its relationship with adolescent mental health and well-being. Public health policy and research have focused on the effects of time spent online. However, social media use encompasses a wide range of activities, and little is currently known about how adolescents use social media and the mental health implications.
The mixed-method study aimed to address the following overarching research questions:
- How do adolescents use social media?
- What is the relationship between social media user types and mental health?
- What is the relationship between social media user types and connectedness to peers, school and family?
Sample:
This mixed methods PhD involved a two-wave cohort survey of 13-14-year-olds (N=2,549 at time 1, 59% female) in nineteen UK secondary schools across southwest England. The survey was conducted primarily online during lesson time, and questions used in this study included social media screentime, different social media activities, symptoms of anxiety and depression, well-being, past year self-harm, connectedness to peers, school and family. In-depth face-to-face qualitative interviews were simultaneously conducted with twenty-four 13-14- year-olds in two of the participating schools with different demographic profiles.
What did we do?
The first part of the study used Latent Class Analysis (quantitative) and Ideal Type Analysis (qualitative) to develop a mixed-methods typology of early adolescent social media users based on non-platform-specific passive activities such as listening to music, more social activities such as sending messages, and broadcasting activities such as posting selfies or other content. Next, we analysed how membership of these user types differed a year later. We then tested associations between user types (aged 13 years) and subsequent mental health and social connectedness (aged 14 years).
We used reflexive thematic analysis to explore how adolescence is experienced in the age of social media and what the implications might be for adolescent mental health and well-being – adding richness to the quantitative findings. Finally, we conducted a secondary thematic analysis to explore the relationship between social media use and connectedness to peers, family and school.
What did we find?
In the first part of the study, we identified four types of social media user at age 13: high communicators (48%), moderate communicators (33%), broadcasters (13%), and minimal users (7%). User types differed most strikingly by variations in frequency of online broadcasting, and – in qualitative findings – in levels of audience privacy.
Adolescents who were broadcaster social media users at age 13 had the poorest mental health outcomes a year later, including self-harm, anxiety, depression, and poor well-being. Those whose social media use was characterised by moderate to high levels of direct communication, socialising, and passive use – but much lower levels of broadcasting – had the best mental health outcomes a year later. Qualitative findings indicated that broadcasting to an audience beyond close friends may increase the risk of negative evaluation, peer ostracization or data misappropriation, i.e., screen-shotting and non-consensual redistribution (replication), or identity theft through publicly sharing personal details. Social ostracization is a particular risk for those using social media broadcasting for mental health help-seeking – perceived as attention-seeking or irresponsible, or those who broadcast very frequently as a form of excessive reassurance-seeking.
Social media user type at age 13 was not a quantitative predictor of poor connectedness to peers, family, or school at age 14. Qualitative findings indicated that adolescents’ offline social resources were an important determinant of whether social media enriched or damaged social connectedness. Social connectedness was most enhanced by social media use when adolescents felt their relationships with others to be trusting and respectful, encouraging shared experiences and self-disclosure. However, social media had a negative effect on relationships where there was a lack of trust, autonomy or understanding; limiting online self-disclosure with peers and creating a sense of disconnect between young people and older generations.
We suggest several key messages for schools to deliver within the digital literacy or Personal, Social and Health Education curricula, about how to maximise the benefits and minimise the harms of social media use. These include a focus on:
- Mindfulness of one’s own patterns of social media use and how they may influence – and be influenced by – one’s mental health and well-being.
- Increasing understanding of the role of algorithms in shaping social norms.
- Managing passive social media use with a mindfulness of content consumed and how this is likely to influence future exposure to content.
- Awareness of others’ self-presentation strategies online and mindfulness of the appropriateness of content as a source for social comparison.
- Importance of effective management of privacy settings to avoid exposure to unsolicited contact and mitigate risk of negative evaluation, social exclusion and data misappropriation.
- Issues around consent with regards data misappropriation and unsolicited sexual contact.
- Mindfulness of excessive reassurance-seeking (and its social risks) and overconnectedness in disproportionate levels of communication or broadcasting.
- Mindfulness of content and motivation for broadcasting, with consideration of publicness, permanence, and potential for rejection as well as validation.
- Encouragement and guidance around removal of unnecessary social media features, including visibility of other people’s views, likes, followers or comments, or the ‘read receipt’ function to show when someone has viewed a message.
- Prioritisation of trustworthiness, empathy, and respect over availability within fulfilling peer relationships.
- Appreciation of the opportunities and value of social media use as well as its risks, with a focus on the importance of healthy and meaningful social relationships offline to benefit most from social media.
Project team:
- University of Bristol, UK: Lizzy Winstone; Judi Kidger (supervisor); Becky Mars (supervisor); Claire Haworth (supervisor); Helen Bould (steering group member)
- University of Newcastle, UK: Eileen Kaner (steering group member)
- University of Birmingham, UK: Liz McDermott (steering group member)
- Wiltshire Council, UK: Nick Bolton (steering group member)
- South Gloucestershire Council, UK: Sarah Godsell (steering group member)
- Bath and North East Somerset Council, UK: Clare Laker (steering group member)
- Off The Record, Bristol, UK: Liam McKinnon (steering group member)
Funders/Supporters
This study was funded by NIHR School for Public Health Research
Publications and other outputs:
- Winstone, L., Mars, B., Haworth, C.M.A., & Kidger, J. (2022). Types of social media use and digital stress in early adolescence. Journal of Early Adolescence, 43(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/02724316221105560
- Winstone, L., Mars, B., Haworth, C.M.A., Heron, J., & Kidger, J. (2022). Adolescent social media user types and their mental health and well‐being: Results from a longitudinal survey of 13–14‐year‐olds in the United Kingdom. JCPP Advances, e12071. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcv2.12071
- Winstone, L., Mars, B., Haworth, C.M.A., & Kidger, J. (2021). Social media use and social connectedness among adolescents in the United Kingdom: a qualitative exploration of displacement and stimulation. BMC public health, 21(1), 1736. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-11802-9
- Social Media Use in Adolescence – Ask The Expert. Association of Child and Adolescent Mental Health, Invited Talk for Teachers (March 2023). In this video, Lizzy discusses current research and debates in social media use and mental health, with a focus on young people with poor mental health, and incorporating social media issues into the Personal, Social and Health Education curriculum. https://www.acamh.org/freeview/cpd/social-media-use-ask-the-expert-recording/
- Social Media Use in Adolescence: User Types and Mental Health. Association of Child and Adolescent Mental Health Podcast (August 2022). https://doi.org/10.13056/acamh.20792 In this podcast, Lizzy discusses the paper ‘Adolescent social media user types and their mental health and well‐being: Results from a longitudinal survey of 13–14‐year‐olds in the United Kingdom’, published in JCPP Advances.
- ‘Five top tips to support your mental health when using social media’. In this animation, co-produced with members of the NIHR ARC West Young People’s Advisory Group, we suggest recommendations for young people based on the findings from this PhD study. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q058uB7lwNs
Contact for further details: Lizzy.Winstone@bristol.ac.uk